10. History of Aesthetics - Themes in the Middle Ages

The Middle Ages, a period spanning about a thousand years from 500 CE to 1500 CE, was significantly shaped by individual thinkers such as Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. This section of the History of Aesthetics will delve into their contributions. But before we do, it's important to provide an overview of some recurring focal points in the Middle Ages that pertain to aesthetics, as these thinkers were deeply influenced by these themes.

Proportion, light (and color), and symbolism represent three key themes permeating this period's intellectual discourse and artistic practices. Theologians and philosophers presented these ideas as integral to their study of beauty and art, and the artisans integrated these ideas into their various practices.

Proportion

When the Middle Ages began, proportion had long been regarded as an essential aspect of beauty. Plato and Aristotle both maintained this importance in their writings about art and beauty. The Stoics reaffirmed it, claiming that perfect beauty is symmetry. Plotinus acknowledged it but was concerned that it was overemphasized to the extent that simple things without parts could not be beautiful. This tradition of valuing proportion continued into the Middle Ages.

A prominent place to notice the use of proportion is in the design of cathedrals. However, theologians and philosophers of this time also emphasized proportion in music. The influence of ancient Greece may have persisted in the Middle Ages. These ancient philosophers, notably Pythagoras, considered music an aspect of math, so proportion (or harmony) applied to music illustrated a quantitative aspect of beauty.

Medieval thinkers used this relationship between music and proportion to make claims about the rest of the world. In his book Art and Beauty in the Middle Ages, Umberto Eco wrote, “The soul and the body, [Boethius] said, are subject to the same laws that govern music, and these same proportions are to be found in the cosmos itself.” They believed a complete harmony existed between the micro and macro aspects of the world, which connects with Plotinus’s view that something beautiful must be composed of beautiful parts.

Proportion and music became a paradigm of what beauty in other areas should strive toward. Eco explains, “All of the medieval treatises on the figurative arts reveal an ambition to raise them to the same mathematical level as music.” The belief in a quantitative and objective notion of beauty permeated medieval theories and practices. But this doesn’t mean they dismissed emotional and subjective experiences and responses to beauty.

Light

If proportion was considered a quantitative aspect of beauty, then light (and color) fulfilled the qualitative aspect. Thomas Aquinas considers radiance, which combines light and color, one of the three conditions of beauty, so we will address this more fully when discussing his views later. For now, I would like to briefly explain the importance of light in medieval thought and artistic practice to you. Light guides us, especially when we are in unfamiliar spaces. The biblical text describes people as strangers to this earth, so we need light to make it through life.

“Immediacy and simplicity,” according to Eco, “characterized the medieval love of light and colour.” Philosophers became more enthralled by light during this period than in previous eras. The general interest in light may explain the importance of stained glass in cathedrals. The integral connection with churches likely derives from the belief that God is light. In the same way that light and color pierce through the darkness at certain times of day in the cathedrals, the divine light pierces through the dark and confusing parts of the world to bring clarity to our lives.

Robert Grosseteste wrote, “Light is beautiful in itself, for its nature is simple, and all things are like to it.” This sets the stage for the medieval theologians, notably St. Bonaventure, to posit their notion of the beatific vision. “In the resurrected bodies of mankind, light will shine out with its four fundamental characteristics: clarity which illuminates, impassibility so that it cannot corrupt, agility so that it can travel instantaneously, and penetrability so that it can pass through transparent bodies.” In other words, their notion of heaven involved an aesthetically pleasing combination of proportion and light as a perfect beauty.

Symbolism

Looking back, we may get the impression that the church was too controlling of what artists made. While there may be truth to that in some sense, consistency was also needed because many people could not read. Imagine getting a new graphic novel where the characters are drawn completely differently on each page. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to follow. The artists followed a system of symbols so that everyone would understand the people and stories they depicted, whether they read the related texts or not.

Symbolism was not limited to art. They believed symbols could help them understand the world better. Eco explains, “The Medievals inhabited a world filled with references, reminders and overtones of Divinity, manifestations of God in things.” This idea derives from their belief that God created and ordered everything. Just like painters imbue their work with meaning, so God instills nature with different meanings and symbols. To put it more in aesthetic terms, for Medieval thinkers, the beauty of the world would radiate the beauty and existence of God through symbols, light, color, and harmony. This helped cause the impulse to create their own symbols in art and literature.

Conclusion

Medieval European philosophers built their theories of beauty and art around their belief in God. Regardless of whether someone shares their religious beliefs, these philosophers offer incredibly insightful and nuanced ideas in the history of aesthetics. Psychologists and neuroscientists have confirmed some of their ideas about the importance of light, color, and proportion.

As we look at specific Medieval philosophers and theologians, starting with St. Augustine, these core ideas provide a useful foundation to discuss the specific developments in their writings. The Medieval period marks the transition from a focus on the divine and inspiration to a turn toward more attention to science toward the end of this long era. This doesn’t necessarily mean the abandonment of their beliefs, but science, as we’ll see later on, changed some of the focus and starting points for their beliefs.

Further reading

Umberto Eco. Art and Beauty in the Middle Ages. Yale University Press, 1986 (

Michael Spicher. “Medieval Theories of Aesthetics.”

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Relevant ARL Articles

Review of The Experience of Beauty in the Middle Ages

Performative Beauty and Knowledge by Connaturality

Beauty: Objective or Subjective

ARL News

My colleague, Bella Zhang, and I created a new course, “Aesthetic Paths to Flourishing.” It will be held in two online sessions (Nov 3 and 17). Registration is now open. Early Bird Registration Ends Soon!

Digital Fashion: Theory, Practice, Implications, edited by Michael R. Spicher, Sara Emilia Bernat, and Doris Domoszlai-Lantner, is available for purchase!